What persuades men and women to mistake each other from time to time for gods or vermin is ideology. – Terry Eagleton. 

The portrayal of Muslims in literature has been a subject of scholarly scrutiny, often reflecting historical contexts, cultural biases, and prevailing socio-political narratives. A common trope uncovered is the Orientalist Gaze that Muslims and Islam are subjected to in these cultural representations. Edward Said’s concept of Orientalism sheds light on how Western representations of the Orient, including the East and Muslims, have contributed to shaping perceptions and stereotypes. In recent times, scholars like Irfan Ahmad and Sheldon Pollock have provided insightful analyses that delve into the intricate relationship between knowledge, power, and domination in the context of Hindu cultures and their implications for Muslim representation. This paper aims to critically examine the depiction of Muslims in fiction, drawing upon Said’s Orientalism, Ahmed’s interpretation of premodern Hindu cultures, and the literary work The Suitable Boy by Mira Nair.

Muslim Representation in Fiction

Said’s notion of Orientalism suggests that representations of the “Oriental” often perpetuate stereotypes, presenting them as irrational, exotic, and different from the normative West. Conversely, this binary reinforces the idea of the West as rational, virtuous, and superior. However, Ahmed’s counter-narrative emphasises that the Oriental’s world possesses its own distinct coherence and boundaries, framed by Western knowledge and manipulation. This insight challenges the one-sided perspective prevalent in Western narratives as Ahmad argues,  based on Pollock’s work, for an indigenous varient of the power orientalism weaves in via the East-West dichotomy.

In the novel that engages with historical and socio-political contexts surrounding the partition, Nair provides a portrayal of Muslim characters that, contrary to expectation, does examine the complex layers and does not portray a one-dimensional stereotypical image of the Muslim. Yet each character in the book acts as a narrative device. And thus what is of interest to the reader is that The Nawab Sahib of Baitar exemplifies the decaying feudal order in post-Partition India, which clashes with the modern democratic ideals of the nation – a nascent modernity which is portrayed by Nawab of Baiter’s good friend, who represents an India on the cusp of modernity, bidding farewell to it’s colonial, feudal past. 

Representations of Muslims in fiction often reflect broader sociocultural and historical dynamics. The fictional landscape can be a mirror to the real world, where stereotypes and complexities coexist. A Suitable Boy stands as an example of how Muslim characters are depicted as relics of the past as the author seeks to portray how it embodies the intricate interplay of tradition, modernity, and power dynamics in a changing society. By contextualising these narratives within the framework of Orientalism, premodern Hindu cultures, and contemporary fiction, we gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of Muslim representation in literature.

For instance, Nair writes, “He gave his tuitions, he studied, he was involved in some work for the Socialist Party, and he was trying to write a pamphlet – half popular, half scholarly – on the sanction for and meaning of secularism in Islam. He had run his life for months on will-power rather than on a combination of food and affection.” In A Suitable Boy, thus the entwined narratives of characters like Rasheed, the Nawab’s son, and Saeeda Begum, the courtesan, offer themselves too the reader as a literary tools depicting the  portrayal of the clash of civilisations and ideologies during a pivotal juncture in Indian history. Through Rasheed’s commitment to tuitions, studies, and socialist activism, the novel embodies the interplay of traditional values and the sweeping wave of modernity. Huntington’s theory resonates as Rasheed navigates the tension between his heritage and his socialist aspirations, a microcosm of the larger ideological clash.

Saeeda Begum’s character further encapsulates Huntington’s prophesied fading of traditional (Islamic) societies in the face of globalisation. As Eagleton suggests, ideologies evolve and sometimes become antiquated relics, mirroring Saeeda’s persona draped in Urdu poetry and symbolic of a bygone era. Her struggle with obsolescence embodies Eagleton’s notion of ideology’s paradoxical role in society, simultaneously perpetuating norms and harbouring elements of change.

Nair’s portrayal of India’s transition towards modernity, accompanied by the shedding of colonial legacies, echoes Huntington’s assertion that civilisations adapt and transform as a lens through which societies negotiate shifts. The evolving relationships and choices of characters mirror these theories, showcasing the intricate interplay of culture, tradition, and ideological paradigms. A Suitable Boy thus weaves together characters like Rasheed and Saeeda Begum to present a vivid tapestry of ideological clashes and convergences. The novel paints a compelling picture of a society at the crossroads of change, where civilizations and ideologies intertwine in complex and transformative ways.

Muslim representation in texts as an object of antiquity 

In India, we witness a dynamic where statements from Indian academics, sociologists such as TN Madan, and occasionally right-wing politicians emphasise and instituted the trope claiming  necessity for Muslims to “assimilate” into the mainstream – which, is often characterised as the ‘present’ as opposed to the Muslim which is stuck in traditions of the past. These discussions call for Muslims to shed perceived backwardness and relinquish excessive focus on religion. The call for assimilation is intertwined with the notion of embracing a secular fabric that is often conflated with ‘Indianness.’ This perspective implies that Muslims are yet to attain the civilizational pinnacle represented by modern secular values, and a perceived epistemic gap continues to exist for Muslims.

Similarly, the discourse surrounding the implementation of a Uniform Civil Code to replace religious personal laws draws attention to the pronounced tendency among proponents of Islamophobia to label any proximity to Islam as ‘uncivilised’ and parochial. Turning our attention to the Western context, Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a writer and ex-Muslim, stands as an example. Hirsi Ali labels Islam as ‘backward’ and the Qur’an as ‘terrible.’ Paradoxically, she urges Muslims to engage in an ‘Enlightenment project’ inspired by Christianity, echoing the very values she critiques. The same pattern is mirrored in the statements of a far right Belgian politician Bart de Wever, who champions Enlightenment values while singling out Islam as discordant with European core values. This sentiment is further exemplified by instances such as the Latvian Action Party of Eurosceptics, whose program slogan expresses concern about ‘Islamization,’ drawing from a lens of epistemic Islamophobia. This approach denigrates Islam as ‘barbaric’ and ‘uncivilised,’ reflecting orientalist and racist tropes. Returning to India, we may observed that the prevailing understanding of violence often hinges on the dichotomy of communalism and secularism, it died not go further. The latter, seen by scholars like KM Panicker, T N Madan, and T K Oommen as a hallmark of Indianness, consistently have portrayed how Muslims need to achieve the civilisational ideal of modernity and attain ‘progressive values.’ The roots of how this association between Hinduism and progress developed into a symbol of Indian identity are not entirely established, yet the fact that it consistently juxtaposes with Islam merits attention. In the context of this, K Ashraf’s (2021) paper on Islamophobia in India discusses the secular nature of government or political and cultural forces doesn’t safeguard against Islamophobia. Replacing ‘communalism’ with a focus on violence against Muslims seems to absolve secular or any involvement in producing Islamophobia. 

This intricate structure suggests that the secular-communal binary designed to explain and define the normative structure of knowledge and society in India serves the purpose of safeguarding ruling elites, which resort to cultural representation, such as that by Nair, to depict an orientalist fantasy that can situate Muslims as objects of antiquity. 

However in contemporary novels, the exploration of Islamophobia extends beyond uncovering instances of prejudice or violence. It touches on the concept of global citizenship, often directly addressed within these novels. According to Morey, this exploration must reveal how Islamophobia infiltrates daily life through subtle cues, rumours, media feeds, articles, and political discourse. 

The Indic Gaze and the Muslim Subject 

References 

Eagleton, T. (1991). Ideology: An Introduction*. Verso.

Morey, P. (2013). Islamophobia and the Novel. Springer.

Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. Pantheon Books.